Touch on of Agricultural Animals on the Environs

Colin G. Scanes , in Animals and Human Lodge, 2018

18.6.1 Soil Degradation and Erosion

Soil degradation includes erosion, salinization (due to freshwater removal), soil loss following erosion after deforestation or overgrazing, "compaction and crusting (of soils), [which] can be caused past cattle trampling," and waterlogging with impaired water movement ( Oldeman et al., 1991). It was estimated in 1991 that in that location was 1.96 billion ha of land globally with soil degradation caused by human activity. Soil degradation is made up of the following (Oldeman et al., 1991):

•

overgrazing of rangeland, 679 1000000 ha globally

•

deforestation, 579 million ha globally (also run across Affiliate 23)

•

agronomical mismanagement, 552 million ha globally

•

overexploitation, 133 million ha globally

Desertification is defined by the United Nations (1980) as "diminution or devastation of the biological potential of the land which can lead ultimately to desert-similar conditions."

While contemporary information is largely lacking, in a serial of "classical" studies, the touch of livestock on soil has been demonstrated. It is estimated that the soil of about 75% of rangeland globally was degraded (Dregne and Chou, 1992). Degradation of rangeland can lead to desertification (Dregne and Chou, 1992). Thirty-six years ago, the United nations (1980) viewed that 35% of the world'southward country area was at adventure of desertification. Poor land direction is thought to be responsible for the trouble with overgrazing from excessive livestock being ane of the causes. The land so becomes more vulnerable to wind and h2o erosion (reviewed by Nicholson et al., 1998).

Read total affiliate

URL:

https://www.sciencedirect.com/scientific discipline/article/pii/B9780128052471000253

Soil

Jerry L. Hatfield , ... Richard M. Cruse , in Advances in Agronomy, 2017

ii.3 Soil Deposition

Soil deposition is a nebulous term suggesting that the chapters of a soil to perform selected specified service(due south), such every bit growing crops, has been diminished. The concept seems rather simple, but quantifying degradation has been very challenging and creates dubiety associated with quantifying land deposition efforts ( Bai et al., 2008; Safriel, 2007). A global evaluation of soil or land degradation requires sampling and/or evaluation methodology and a land deposition metric that meets needs and interests for multiple different groups. Sampling intensity required for a quantitatively defendable evaluation varies between different landscapes and soil characteristics under investigation. For instance, within a given field, hill tops or side slopes may exist degraded from soil erosion, while level areas may be unchanged or even improved from eroded topsoil deposition. A single value to describe change beyond multiple widely differing spatial weather condition in pocket-size areas has multiple estimation challenges. The temporal sampling period required to defensively characterize rate of soil change, or intensity of change, may exist multiple decades. In spite of multiple challenges, various efforts to address and quantify soil deposition at the global scale exist in the literature. Safriel (2007) identifies five unlike global state degradation assessments conducted in roughly the last 35 years: Generalized Map of the Condition of Desertification in Arid Lands (Dregne, 1977); Desertification of Arid Lands (Dregne, 1983); Global Desertification Dimensions and Costs (Dregne and Chou, 1992); Global Cess of Human-induced Land Degradation (Oldeman, 1994; Oldeman et al., 1990, 1991); and Synthesis on the Main Areas of Land Cover and Land Use Change (Lepers, 2003). All assessments indicate soil degradation is occurring, but degrees and nigh impacted locations vary with methodology and estimation.

The approach to considering soil or country degradation has recently incorporated land part every bit opposed to earlier approaches that considered primarily soil backdrop such as soil organic matter or carbon content, structural status, degree of salinization, compaction or majority density, or caste of erosion. Utilizing available data from a variety of sources and a process that included change in state function, the FAO (2011) suggests the relatively small area of the globe's surface devoted to agriculture (about 11%), is 25% highly degraded—come across Fig. 4 (FAO, 2011). As one would expect, land deposition was spatially variable. About x% is improving. This evaluation is in contrast to the Global Assessment of Human-Induced Soil Degradation (GLASOD) projection that identified 15% of the agricultural land area every bit beingness degraded (Bai et al., 2008). The FAO report relied heavily on changes in precipitation use efficiency in contrast to the GLASOD project that relied heavily on human being judgement. GLASOD estimates soil erosion is responsible for 83% of global land deposition.

Fig. four. Types and extent of soil degradation.

 Food and Agriculture Organization of the Un, 2011, The Country of the Globe's Land and Water Resources for Nutrient and Agronomics (SOLAW)—Managing Systems at Risk, http://www.fao.org/nr/water/docs/SOLAW_EX_SUMM_WEB_EN.pdf, reproduced with permission.

Read full chapter

URL:

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0065211317300044

Innovation Strategies to Nutrient Security in India

Monkombu Sambasivan Swaminathan , Parthasarathy Chenna Kesavan , in Reference Module in Nutrient Science, 2016

Strategy of Biosaline Agronomics

Soil degradation and soil erosion are a serious threat to sustainable agriculture. The climatic change leading to sea level rise and increased evaporation would effect in increasing salinization of the littoral soil and aquifers. One of the strategies proposed by Swaminathan (2011) is to resort to highly salinity-tolerant crops which are nontoxic and which could also exist a source of protein, fat, and micronutrients. The halophytic plants such as Suaeda maritima, Suaeda nudiflora, Salicornia bracteata, and Aeluropus lagopoides are already nether field testing; a 'genetic garden of halophytes' suitable for homo consumption or as feed for cattle has been ready upwardly for observation and assessment.

Read full chapter

URL:

https://www.sciencedirect.com/scientific discipline/article/pii/B9780081005965030821

Hydropedology, Geomorphology, and Groundwater Processes in Land Degradation

Richard MacEwan , ... Jonathon Fawcett , in Hydropedology, 2012

4.1.1 Degradation Features on the Eastern Dundas Tablelands

Soil degradation consists of irregular shaped scalds, devoid of vegetation, along drainage flats, at the breaks-of-slope, and along valley sides. Below the arid scalds, vegetation is dominated past species tolerant to salt and waterlogging such as Buck'southward Horn Plantain (Plantago coronopus), Water Buttons (Cotula coronopifolia), Annual Beard Grass (Polypogon monspeliensis), and Sea Barley Grass (Critesion marinum). Distinct areas of Fog Grass (Holcus lanatus) are constitute directly upslope of degraded belch zones. Groundwater discharge occurs as free-flowing springs and every bit diffuse seeps. Iron staining, common salt efflorescence, and sealing of the soil surface are common features of the diffuse seepage areas, and landowners have reported that these areas appeared to be expanding upslope as well as downslope.

Read total chapter

URL:

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780123869418000149

Challenges to Agriculture Systems

Michael J. Goss , ... Isabel Brito , in Functional Variety of Mycorrhiza and Sustainable Agriculture, 2017

Soil degradation is defined as a change in the soil quality status resulting in a macerated chapters of the ecosystem to provide goods and services for its beneficiaries ( http://www.fao.org/soils-portal/soil-deposition-restoration/en/). It is estimated that 5 billion hectares are degraded worldwide, with 64% of this area in dry regions (Eswaran et al., 2001). There are several causes for land deposition. Erosion by water and wind is the primary cause and contributes to about 85% of land degradation (Oldeman et al., 1992). On a global scale the costs to the globe of an almanac loss of 75 billion tonnes of soil is about US$ 400 billion year−1, or approximately Usa$ seventy person−one year−1 (Pimentel et al., 1995; Lal, 1998). Soil compaction is mainly important in the regions of the world where mechanization has been intensively used. On-farm losses through state compaction in the Us take been estimated at US$ 1.2 billion year−1 (Gill, 1971), and it has caused yield reductions of 25%–fifty% in some regions of Europe (Eriksson et al., 1974) and North America, and between 40% and 90% in West African countries (Charreu, 1972; Kayombo and Lal, 1994). Soil acerbity also threatens crop yields, either by reducing the availability of important nutrients for crop nutrition or through the associated toxicities of Al and Mn. Around 50% of the globe'southward potentially arable soils are acidic and the utilise of fertilizers and biological nitrogen fixation are promoting soil acerbity. Salinization is likewise an of import attribute of soil deposition. Common salt-affected soils occur in more than than 100 countries and their worldwide extent is estimated at almost 1 billion ha (FAO and ITPS, 2015). Some 10%–xx% of dry lands are already degraded due to desertification while a much larger number is under threat (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005). The Un Environs Plan (UNEP) estimates that 16% of the world's productive land is already degraded (Parry et al., 2009).

Read total affiliate

URL:

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780128042441000010

Restoring Soil Fertility in Sub-Sahara Africa

Bekunda Mateete , ... Woomer Paul L. , in Advances in Agronomy, 2010

vi Lessons Learned and Way Forwards

Soil degradation is only simply 1 of the constraints to food crop product in SSA smallholder agriculture just a root cause of persistent cycles of rural poverty. Where there is a express utilize of external subcontract inputs considering of depression capacity to invest in farm improvement, continuous cultivation results in low and declining crop yields and an inability to attend to other farm production constraints, and eventually to food deficits, low incomes and perpetuated poverty. Because of the circuitous causes of low crop yields among these pocket-sized farmers, and their far-reaching effects, no simple intervention is likely to overcome yield limitations, uplift households and restore soil fertility; rather an integrated arroyo involving access to subcontract inputs, technologies to ensure their efficient use, land conservation measures and improved socioeconomic support is required.

Problems of soil degradation in SSA and the urgent need to reverse this ominous processes have been addressed at dissimilar levels, ranging from global to project programs. In 2005, the United nations Millennium Project released recommendations on how to attain the Millennium Development Goals by 2015 (UNDP, 2005) among which was one focusing on soil wellness, pocket-sized-calibration water management, and use of superior seeds as entry points for drastically increasing agricultural productivity in SSA. Consistent actions supported past the Millennium Promise seek to demonstrate that the end of extreme poverty tin be achieved by working with the poorest of the poor, village by village throughout Africa, in partnership with governments and other committed stakeholders. This approach requires affordable and science-based solutions to help people elevator themselves out of the poverty. In the same year, the United Nations Globe Top endorsed the launching of the African Dark-green Revolution chosen forth past the then UN Secretary General, Kofi Annan on July 5, 2004 in Addis Ababa at the high-level event on "Innovative approaches to meeting the hunger millennium development goal in Africa." In his own words, a successful revolution is where "we would see soil health restored, through agroforestry techniques and organic and mineral fertilizers," among other solutions. At the June 2006 Abuja Fertilizer Superlative, African heads of state and regime added practical momentum to the African Green Revolution by identifying specific operational targets for 2007 through 2015, after declaring "fertilizer, from both inorganic and organic sources, a strategic commodity without borders." In 2007, the Brotherhood for a Green Revolution in Africa was launched, including major programs in improved seeds and soil health. The overall vision is the elimination of hunger and absolute poverty in SSA. These activities accept spilled over to country levels which agreed to subject area themselves to a global monitoring framework by which progress on development goals could be measured.

Despite these yard intentions very trivial has inverse at the farm level, peculiarly among the poorest households. These stakeholders were bypassed during colonial times and early on independence as unable to contribute to larger economic goals, and lost to the first Greenish Revolution because the infrastructure and incentives necessary to adopt modern agriculture were not in identify, peculiarly toward the use of sufficient fertilizer (Okigbo, 1990). Farming Systems Inquiry and Development and its early participatory approaches were more sensitive to the plight of smallholders, and resulted in isolated successes in managing locally available agricultural resource (Chambers et al., 1989), only in the finish were rejected because it served more to certificate rural household conditions than to empower farmers to solve production and marketing problems. The aforementioned could be said of Sustainable Agriculture which focused more than upon environmental integrity rather than household well-being (Dumanski et al., 1991) and assumed that practiced things must happen to those who take amend care of the land. Focus upon soil nutrient depletion in Africa quantified its losses and raised awareness of an ominous future (Smaling et al., 1997) but the calls for large-scale nutrient replenishment as an investment in agronomical resource capital never materialized (Sanchez et al., 1997). Indeed, the succession of paradigms reflect a learning process among rural evolution specialists, and better direct applied research, simply it appears that the application of new knowledge has failed to keep step with ecology reject and spiraling poverty in SSA, and this has led to the new directions involving an African Green Revolution (Conway and Toenniessen, 2003) that embrace market place-led research, smart policy intervention, and agricultural value chain enhancement (Sanginga and Woomer, 2009). Certainly, the direction and scope of many recently awarded enquiry and development thrusts in the areas of seed systems, ISFM, rural microfinance and training of local agro-dealers bespeak that important lessons have been learned but exercise not guarantee that poorer households will non be bypassed nonetheless again. For this reason information technology is advisable to e'er include the lower cost denominator in rural evolution programs such as community-based versus commercial seed production, local agromineral exploitation versus massive fertilizer importation or biological nitrogen fixation versus mineral nitrogen addition (Dakora and Keya, 1997; Smaling and Dixon, 2006; Woomer et al., 1997b). We also note with concern that four years into the targets fix by the African Fertilizer Summit, small-scale improvements in food inputs accept not kept step and that corrective deportment are necessary to guide the continent'due south pathway toward nutrient balance and food security.

Read total chapter

URL:

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0065211310080041

Indicators of Good Agricultural Practices in Viticulture

Adriana Nario , ... Jose Chamorro , in Integrated Analytical Approaches for Pesticide Management, 2018

Erosion Measures

Sometimes soil degradation tin can be slowly reversed, every bit in the case of declining organic affair, but other contributing factors similar erosion are irreversible ( OECD, 2001). Soil erosion is a not bad threat to long-term agronomical sustainability, and occurs when soil is removed through the action of wind and water at a greater charge per unit than it is formed. Erosion is not just the result of climatic factors operating at both temporal and spatial levels, but is besides a effect of man activities (e.g., intensive agriculture nether plowing without returning organic matter to soil organisation). To command soil erosion, there is a need to monitor the impacts of country use and assess the effectiveness of specific soil conservation technologies (IAEA, 2014).

There are many models and programs dealing with how to measure soil erosion rates, e.yard., the Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE) (Wischmeier and Smith, 1978), and the revised USLE (Shi et al., 2002), but in essence it is necessary to take soil water measurements. Most of these, however, disturb the soil and introduce artificial implements and devices (Fig. 17.iv).

Figure 17.4. Soil disturbance for soil runoff measurements.

Fallout radionuclides (FRNs) accept proven to be a price-effective tool to trace soil redistribution due to erosion from plot to basin scales and tin complement the information provided by conventional erosion measurements and modeling (IAEA, 2014). To assess soil erosion rates the FRN methodology was used in this study, focusing on 7Be equally the chief soil redistribution tracer for measuring erosion and sedimentation processes (Taylor et al., 2013; Mabit et al., 2008). The sevenExist radionuclide is a natural cosmogenic radionuclide produced in the upper atmosphere by cosmic ray spallation of nitrogen and oxygen. 7Exist is typically deposited in the upper 5   cm of the soil, and then information technology is possible to discriminate between the sediment derived from the uppermost soil surface and that derived from depths >x   mm, where the concentration volition exist aught (Walling and Quine, 1995). Due to its curt one-half-life, it is possible to assess soil erosion rates occurring over brusque fourth dimension scales. A highly skilled team is required to use this methodology and special collections of soil samples at but 2–v   mm depth increments are needed to establish the initial 7Be vertical distribution in soil. Limitations of the techniques are related to soil sample collections that must be at shallow depths due to superficial deposits on the topsoil.

Using this radionuclide approach (Fig. 17.5), Chilean Nuclear Energy Commission scientists measured the losses due to erosion in vineyards, and also established that soil eroding from their hillsides was adding sediment to downstream water reservoirs.

Figure 17.5. Soil sampling tools for soil erosion rate measurements.

Soil samples were taken using five round and thin-walled plastic cores (x   cm long; 14   cm cross section) pushed vertically into the soil upwardly to a depth of 5   cm and then put into a plastic purse in a box, taking care to avoid disturbing the uppermost sediments. Soil sample cores from the field plots were then extruded and sectioned into 0–0.5   mm and 0.v–one.0   mm layers using a fine soil increase collector synthetic at the Chilean Nuclear Energy Commission (Nario et al., 2010). Each subsample layer was homogenized, oven-dried at 25°C (±two°C), and sieved to 2   mm. Dried soil samples (30–120   g) were placed in a plastic Petri dish (178   mL) for counting in a Hewlett Packard-γ detector. The grass covering the samples was also counted in the γ-detector and the value subtracted from the soil sample counts to avert overestimation.

Terracing of vineyards reduced soil erosion by only 7%, while planting permanent footing embrace betwixt the vines reduced erosion past 50% (in 2009 and 2010), resulting in the latter beingness adopted as a management practice in vineyards.

Between 2007 and 2008 the FRN methodology revealed erosion rates in the range ii.1–fourscore   t/ha. In this area the interrow plots were covered sparsely. Due to the high erosion values the farmer started to embrace the soil more densely. From 2009 to 2012, a new plot with a mean slope of 12 degrees (21%) was evaluated in terms of erosion rates using two replicate rows to measure the radionuclide sevenBe. The results are shown in Table 17.iv.

Table 17.4. Erosion Rates (t/ha) in years 2009–12

2009 2010 2011 2012
June August June November June August June July
Erosion rate 24.9±2.viii 75.9±45.i 24.2±two.v 22.eight±14 43.seven±0.ix 57.v±1.9 61.vi±7.8 73.0±24.0
Precipitation prior to sampling (mm)
Precipitation rate 97 137 263.5 48 124 103.4 184.2 238.iv

Even when fields are managed with cover crops as mulch between rows to diminish the impact of rainfall, net erosion was plant at all dates sampled. To constitute the link betwixt rainfall and 7Be in soil, the shape of the 7Exist depth distribution represents a cardinal parameter in the conversion model used to derive estimates of soil redistribution rates from measurements of the 7Be inventory within the study sites. The depth distributions documented at the reference sites (RSs) corresponded closely to the expected exponential form, with activeness (concentration of 7Exist, Bq per kg) decreasing rapidly with depth. With depth (x) expressed equally mass depth (kg/m), the exponential function fitted the measured values of viiBe action very closely.

An example of depth mass distribution of sevenBe at the undisturbed RS and of the h o relaxation curve is shown in Fig. 17.half-dozen. Information technology is clear that there is a direct correlation between amounts of atmospheric precipitation and erosion events, simply also that erosion rates are affected by both the intensity of rainfall and the percentage of cover crop between rows.

Effigy 17.6. Depth mass distribution of 7Be at the undisturbed reference site and h o relaxation curve, soil sampling June 2009. V, Vineyard.

Read full chapter

URL:

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780128161555000178

The use of industrial and nutrient crops for the rehabilitation of areas contaminated with metal(loid)southward: Physiological and molecular mechanisms of tolerance

Patrícia Vidigal , ... Maria Manuela Abreu , in Handbook of Bioremediation, 2021

ii Rehabilitation with industrial and nutrient crops

Globally, soil degradation is an important issue due to its affect on world food security and environmental quality, preventing the correct achievement of the soil functions and fulfillment of ecosystem services. Although potentially toxic elements be naturally in soils with different concentrations as a result of the chemical limerick and weathering of the rock parent materials and pedogenic processes, several anthropic activities have leaded to the increase these concentrations ( Kabata-Pendias, 2011).

State rehabilitation is essential to minimize environmental impacts associated to human and animate being health and to restore ecosystem services to provide a new and sustainable country use (Lal, 2015; Santos et al., 2018a). The inclusion of multidisciplinary bug (environmental, legislative, and economic) in the rehabilitation strategy is essential and specific to each area, region and/or state (Santos et al., 2018a).

There are many environmental and tangible and intangible socioeconomic benefits in the land rehabilitation with phytotechnologies, simply due to its complexity, an authentic cess is very hard. The phytoremediation techniques for rehabilitation of soils contaminated with metal(oids), such equally phytostabilization and phytoextraction, take low cost of implementation compared with conventional techniques of engineering (Bech et al., 2014; Khan et al., 2004), only nowadays, other approaches should be considered to monetize the rehabilitation.

Independently of ecophysiological parameters associated to the selected plants (e.thou., aggregating behavior, tolerance to stress factors from contaminated areas, and growth and biomass production), the availability and characteristics of the metallic(loid)s in the soil play an of import role in the effectiveness of the phytoremediation and consequently in the socioeconomic perspective of the contaminated site rehabilitation. Moreover the potential take chances for human and/or fauna health by the consumption of the whole plant or specific plant parts and the utilise of plant-based products too should be considered. In fact, this result is a neat weakness when some plant species are used.

In general, phytoextraction strategy involves repeated plant cropping in contaminated soils until the desired elements amounts take been reached in the soil. According to the limitations associated to this phyotechnology, its economic feasibility can only be a reality if the extracted chemical element has a high marketplace toll and the annual yield per surface area unit is great (van der Ent et al., 2015) equally well as the element extraction engineering from the plant is highly efficient.

Phytostabilization with industrial and nutrient crops can offer different options that are economically viable (Licht and Isebrands, 2005). The use of land for pasture of domestic animals, production of fibers and ornamental plants, wood or other woody products, and biomass production for extraction of essential oils and/or compounds for pharmaceutical and cosmetic are some economic opportunities for companies and/or local population (Arán et al., 2017; Macías et al., 2011; Prasad, 2016; Santos et al., 2016b, 2017, 2018b). However, the cess of the environmental and public safety risk of these products derived from each scenario with contaminated soils is essential, especially for food crops.

The cultivated provender plant, Rumex K-1 grown in contaminated soil, showed depression concentrations of Cu, Cd, Pb, and Zn in the shoots, merely there was high accumulation of Atomic number 82 and Zn in the roots (Zhuang et al., 2009), and then its consumption by domestic animals should exist evaluated. In natural conditions, several species of the genus Cistus growing in mining areas have low toxicity for domestic animals due to depression elements accumulation in the shoots (Abreu et al., 2012; Arenas-Lago et al., 2017; Santos et al., 2012, 2016c).

In contaminated soils to which Technosols designed for each specific ecology trouble were applied, loftier levels of plant cover for forage (e.chiliad., wheat, barley, and rapeseed) were achieved (Macías et al., 2011). Besides, microcosm experiments evidenced the potential revegetation of sulfide tailings rehabilitated with designed Technosols by pastures (Trifolium pratense L. and Lollium perenne L.) and aromatic constitute species, as C. ladanifer L., Rosmarinus officinalis L. and L. pedunculata (Arán et al., 2017; Santos et al., 2018b, 2019). Moreover the extracts derived from these aromatic plants presented various compounds with interest for cosmetic and/or pharmaceutical industry and similar organic composition compared with other extracts obtained from plants growing in uncontaminated areas (Santos et al., 2018b). Like results were reported for dissimilar extracts obtained from several aromatic plant species growing, spontaneously or cultivated, in soils with multielementar contagion (Affholder et al., 2013; Santos et al., 2016b, 2017; Zheljazkov et al., 2006; Zheljazkov and Nielsen, 1996).

According to several authors, element concentrations in the substrata and plants do not affect the limerick and amounts of the organic compounds in the extracts. In fact, in some cases, an increase of the concentration of some organic compounds was reported, equally was the case of dissimilar extracts from rosemary, rockrose, and lavender growing in contaminated soils (Affholder et al., 2013; Santos et al., 2016b, 2017).When Mentha crispa L. and M. piperita L. were exposed to different metals, like or even college production of essential oil yield was also reported (Prasad et al., 2010). Nonetheless, in G. arvensis 50., Grand. citrata L., and other plants, such as basil, chamomile, dill, and sage, essential oil yield decreased when they grew nether metallic contagion weather condition (Prasad et al., 2010; Zheljazkov et al., 2008). Although several studies (Santos et al., 2017; Zheljazkov et al., 2006, 2008; Zheljazkov and Nielsen, 1996) reported that essential oils/extracts from plants growing in contaminated soils did not pose human being health risk, since very pocket-sized amounts of elements are transferred from biomass to the extract, it is essential to perform chemic assessments in each instance.

Concerning to nutrient crops, one of import factor is their careful direction in contaminated soils to avoid food chain contagion (Mahar et al., 2016). Due to their direct human consumption, the evaluation should exist careful since the elements concentrations in edible parts can vary highly with species or even multifariousness of plants and/or edafoclimatic conditions. For example, G. max presents potential to extract Co, Lead, and Zn (Murakami and Ae, 2009), whereas B. napus 50. showed natural ability to accrue Zn, Cd, Pb, and Se (Brewer et al., 1999; Sheng et al., 2008; Sheng and Xia, 2006). Another studies showed the aggregating of Zn and Cu in the grain of Zea mays L., Triticum aestivum L., and Trititcum turgidum 50. var. durum (Hart et al., 2002; Xiaomei et al., 2005).

In agriculture soils close to a former U mine area, U concentrations in edible parts of lettuce, green beans, and spud tubers were very different, reaching the highest values in lettuce leaves (Neves and Abreu, 2009). Nonetheless, according to the aforementioned report, there are no potentially adverse wellness risks for adult and children during a lifetime. In another study, Solanum tuberosum L. growing in like soils showed accumulation of Al, U, Mn, and 226Ra in tubers, simply peeling removed most of these elements from potatoes (Carvalho et al., 2009; Neves et al., 2012).

Petroselinum crispum Mill. growing in a microcosm assay with Every bit contaminated soil showed impaired development even under the influence of soil amendments, which macerated As availability. Under these conditions, the plant translocated As to shoots although without representing a serious health run a risk if consumed (Madeira et al., 2012). In kitchen gardens and areas close to different abandoned mines grade Iberian Pyrite Chugalug (IPB), the potential risk for homo health depended on the aromatic species and element (Alvarenga et al., 2014; Gonzalez-Fernandez et al., 2011; Rossini-Oliva et al., 2019). The consumption of infusions obtained from L. pedunculata growing naturally in São Domingos mine (IPB) also had without whatever human risk (Santos et al., 2016b).

In mine sterile dumps rehabilitated with designed Aluandic Technosol (Touro mine, Spain), the economical valorization was accomplished through a plantation of Eucalyptus globulus L., for wood and biomass source for paper lurid, which presented i.ii- to ane.5-fold higher yield than those in natural soils (Macías et al., 2011). Also, primary and secondary products from other woody species with high-biomass product and rapid growth (due east.g., poplar and willow) are reported as an economical opportunity (Licht and Isebrands, 2005; Prasad, 2016).

The extraction of fibers from Cannabis sativa L. produced in contaminated soils can also be a viable choice since fibers quality was non affected past the presence of Cd, Ni, and Atomic number 82 and virtually of the elements accumulation were located in the leaves (Linger et al., 2002).

Read total chapter

URL:

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780128193822000028

DEGRADATION

C.J. Ritsema , ... S.M. de Jong , in Encyclopedia of Soils in the Environment, 2005

Types of Soil Degradation

The blazon of soil deposition refers to the nature of the deposition procedure. Soil particles may exist displaced by the activity of water or wind (erosion and sedimentation), which may cause damage to crops, infrastructure, buildings, and the environment in general. Erosion can be linear, i.e., concentrated along certain channels (rill or gully erosion and mass wasting such every bit landslides), sometimes creating very deep scars in the landscape ( Figure one). Less conspicuous, but frequently even more than detrimental to crops is the gradual removal of the topsoil layer (sheet erosion). Off-site effects of erosion may consist of siltation of reservoirs and river beds and/or flooding, or dune formation and 'overblowing' in the case of wind erosion. Deposition in situ, i.e., without movement of soil particles, can exist chemic (soil pollution past chemical wastes or excessive fertilization; fertility decline due to nutrients being removed past harvesting, erosion and leaching; salinization due to irrigation with saline groundwater and/or without proper drainage in semiarid and arid areas, acidification due to pH-lowering additions to the soil from fertilizers or from the atmosphere), or physical (compaction due to the use of heavy machinery; deteriorating soil structure such as crusting of the soil surface; waterlogging due to increased h2o table or its opposite, aridification).

Figure i. Severely degraded soils on the Loess Plateau of Red china.

Read full chapter

URL:

https://world wide web.sciencedirect.com/science/commodity/pii/B0123485304000916

Soil Conservation☆

Rattan Lal , in Reference Module in Life Sciences, 2017

Methods of Soil Conservation in Agronomics

The charge per unit of soil deposition presently exceeds the rate of soil germination in systems impacted past humans ( Jenny, 1980, 1984). All the vegetative productivity depends to a keen extent on the nutrient availability in the soil, but in managed systems, such as intensive agricultural systems with continuous monocultures, a disproportionate amount of nutrients are removed from the system as crop yield. Although synthetic fertilizers renew the food puddle necessary for found growth, they do not regenerate the quantity or the heterogeneity in the quality of SOM. Thus, slower decomposing organic materials (e.g., fertilizers such as manures) are increasingly used to replenish SOM. Crop harvesting also leaves the soil bare and exposed to erosion past the pelting and current of air. Thus, the diminishing quality of the soil resources in natural and managed ecosystems, and the increasing need for nutrient, fiber, and fuel supply, has resulted in a reevaluation and selection of land management strategies that enhance longevity and quality of the soil ecosystems. These alternatives focus on maintenance of SOM, soil fertility, soil biodiversity, soil structure, and soil stabilization, and a reduction of soil erosion as a means of sustaining ecosystems for the long term.

The methods to reduce soil erosion are directed toward protecting the surface of the soil (topsoil) and include tillage practices (reduced tillage, conservation tillage, no till, minimum till or zero tillage – techniques that use specially designed machines and herbicides for minimal bear on on the soil); diversified farming or encompass crops; polycultures; calculation organic composts or mulches; crop rotations; plowing techniques, such as contour farming (plowing at right angles to the land to create ridges to hold h2o); terracing (leveling areas on a slope to prevent water runoff); and timing of plowing (Lal, 2016a).

The methods of agricultural soil conservation have proven valuable whether used alone or in combination. In the United States, soil conservation methods have decreased the soil erosion rates and so that only ane-3rd of the agricultural lands are eroding faster than the average charge per unit of soil formation. Although this is a considerable improvement over the Dust Basin days of the 1930s in the United states, soil conservation still appears to exist necessary. A recent summary of the long-term experiments has evaluated the methods of conservation cultivation intensity and crop management used solitary or in combination on soil carbon storage (Lal, 2015b). The combination of reduced tillage, encompass crop (fallow), increased inputs of crop residue, and crop rotations (with use of perennial vegetation) was more efficient at restoring the SOM and soil carbon and reducing levels of soil erosion than any of these management methods used separately. The rates of erosion were decreased in Creek Basin, Wisconsin, over the past 140-year menses (historical and current data) because of the improvements in local agricultural land management from 1975 to 1993. These studies provide evidence supporting the efficacy of soil conservation practices.

Read total chapter

URL:

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780128096338020471